John Donne, Seventeenth-Century England, and the Metaphysical School of Poetry

John Donne: His Life and Background

John Donne was born in 1572 into a Roman Catholic family. During this period, Queen Elizabeth I ruled England, and her government often punished and harassed Catholics. Although Donne was a brilliant student and received his education at both Oxford and Cambridge, he could not obtain his graduate degree because a law at that time prevented Catholics from graduating.

As a young man, Donne travelled across Europe between 1592 and 1597 and participated in several military expeditions. Later, he became the secretary to Sir Thomas Egerton, a prominent member of the royal court. During this period, he fell in love with Anne More, Sir Thomas Egerton's niece, and the two were married in secret.

When Anne More's father discovered the marriage, he used his influence to have John Donne and two of his friends imprisoned for a short period. This incident gave rise to the well-known statement, "John Donne, Anne Donne, Undone."

After his release from prison, Donne reunited with his wife and settled on land owned by Anne More's cousin in Surrey. During the early years of their marriage, the couple faced financial difficulties. However, in 1609, Donne's father-in-law reconciled with them and restored Anne's dowry.

Encouraged by his family, Donne sought the favour of the King. In 1610 and 1611, he wrote anti-Catholic polemical works. King James was pleased with Donne's writings, and in 1621 he appointed him Dean of St. Paul's Cathedral in London. There, Donne frequently preached to the citizens of London from an outdoor pulpit. On some occasions, the King himself attended these sermons.

The Historical Background of Seventeenth-Century England

• The early seventeenth century, particularly the period of the English Revolution between 1640 and 1660, was a time of intense unrest in every aspect of life. This unrest was reflected in religion, science, politics, domestic relations, and culture.
• The literature of this period also reflects this atmosphere of intense activity. Writers showed a heightened concern for the self and for personal life.
• This was also an age of geographical exploration. New countries were discovered, and these remarkable developments exercised a considerable influence on the literature of the period.

The Metaphysical School of Poetry

The term Metaphysical Poets was coined by the poet and critic Dr Samuel Johnson. He used this term to describe a group of seventeenth-century British poets whose works were characterised by the inventive use of conceits and by speculation on subjects such as love and religion.

Some of the poets associated with the Metaphysical School include John Donne, George Herbert, Henry Vaughan, Thomas Carew, Andrew Marvell, Richard Lovelace, Sir John Suckling, and several others.

Characteristics of Metaphysical Poetry

• Metaphysical poets are known for what is often described as metaphysical wit and conceit. The hallmark of their poetry is the metaphysical conceit, a figure of speech that employs unusual and paradoxical images. These poets rely on intellectual wit, learned imagery, and subtle argument in their poetry.
• Although these techniques were not entirely new, the metaphysical poets adopted them in an innovative manner. Their distinctive approach gave rise to a new kind of poetry, which came to be known as the Metaphysical School of Poetry.
• The term metaphysics may be understood by dividing it into two parts. Meta means "above," and physics refers to the physical realm. Thus, metaphysics signifies that which exists beyond the physical world. In other words, metaphysical poetry appeals to the intellectual level because it is characterised by startling comparisons or contrasts of a metaphysical nature.
• For example, in A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning, John Donne compares the love he shares with his wife to a compass. In the poem, he argues that although he and his wife may move apart physically, they remain united in spirit.
• Metaphysical poetry is also marked by a rejection of sentimental romantic poetry. At times, it employs gross exaggeration, or hyperbole, while at other times it presents ideas through logical and argumentative reasoning. The metaphysical poets were men of learning, and they sought to reflect their scholarship in their poetry.
• Instead of depending entirely on rhyme, they frequently wrote verses that appealed more to the intellect than to the ear. Their poetry is therefore characterised by highly intellectual expression, bold and ingenious conceits, incongruous imagery, complexity and subtlety of thought, frequent use of paradox, and, at times, a deliberate harshness or rigidity of expression.
• Metaphysical poets also employ startling juxtapositions in order to create greater significance in their arguments and intended meanings throughout their poetry.

John Donne as a Metaphysical Poet

• John Donne is regarded as the unsurpassed metaphysical poet. His greatness lies in his ingenious fusion of wit and seriousness. His poetry represents a shift from classical models towards a more personal style of expression.
• Donne's poetry is remarkable for its wide range of secular and religious subjects. He wrote cynical verses about inconstancy, such as Go and Catch a Falling Star. He also composed poems celebrating true love, including The Good-Morrow and Sweetest Love, I Do Not Go.
• His Neoplatonic lyrics explore the mystical union of the lovers' souls and bodies. This aspect of his poetry is reflected in works such as Air and Angels and The Ecstasy. Donne is also known for his satires.
• Donne's Holy Sonnets portray his own spiritual struggles. Among them are Hymn to God the Father, Batter My Heart, Three-Person'd God, and I Am a Little World Made Cunningly. In these poems, he prays to God to cleanse him of sin.
• Apart from his poetry, John Donne is also known for his excellent sermons and prose.